The evolution of the brain from reptilian, to limbic, to neomammalian describes how emotions, which are challenging to measure or identify physiologically, are a part of our “brain blueprint” and differentiate us from primitive species (Andrewes, 2002). This has resulted in our ability to have behavioral responses that can manage fearful situations, protect our young, and induce or inhibit aggressive behaviors when managed by neurotransmitter activity.

Anatomically, the process of an emotional response is characterized first by a stimulus which triggers the appraisal process in the polymodal association area, the medial nucleus of the thalamus, and the inferior colliculus (Andrewes, 2002). This in turn triggers the lateral amygdala which signals the basolateral and basomedial amygdala and the central amygdale. The central amygdala, upon processing the input, initiates an emotional response in the hypothalamus (and then the pituitary gland) or the brain stem. This system of emotional response has been documented in both normal and bipolar patients and, bipolar patients are noted to have increased activity in the amygdala in comparison to non-bipolar patients when experiencing mania (Gruber, Johnson, Oveis, & Keltner, 2008).

Andrewes, D. (2002) Neuropsychology: From theory to practice. New York: Psychology Press.

Gruber, J., Johnson, S. L., Oveis, C., & Keltner, D. (2008). Risk for mania and positive emotional responding: Too much of a good thing? Emotions, 8(1), 23-33.
Papa, A. & Bonanno, G. A. (2008). Smiling in the face of adversity: The interpersonal and intrapersonal functions of smiling. Emotion, 8(1), 1-12. WW

Wilber (2000, p. 63) noted this disintegration of the Great Nest of Being, which he refers to as scientific reductionism, and he responded by developing the Four Quadrents to not only discuss individual consciousness but to also demonstrate how individual consciousness is a part of a larger collective. The four quadrants are as follows:

I: Intentional: Upper Left Interior-Individual: This quadrant includes traits such as emotions, concepts, symbolism, and impulse.

IT: Behavioral: Upper Right Exterior-Individual: This quadrant includes traits such as brain systems, molecular systems, and atoms.

WE: Cultural: Lower Left Interior-Collective: This quadrant includes traits such as magic, vegetative states, and physical activity.

ITS: Social: Lower Right Exterior-Collective: This quadrant includes traits such as galaxies, family dynamics, and social systems.

I see the awareness of these four quadrants as figuring into individual body/mind/spirit development in the sense that each of them represents some aspect of modern human behavior while incorporating pre-modern driven functions or behaviors such as the reptilian brain stem, vision-logic, foraging, and physical worldviews (Wilber, 2000, p. 68). The incorporation of all the quadrants has the potential of developing modernity in a positive perspective as these quadrants can be applied in a variety of ways with variety of psychological models. Westhearfer (2004) suggested that the four quadrants could allow psychologists to study human behavior in all four contexts (intentional, behavioral, cultural, and social) based upon the situation and the needs of the client. Additionally, a person can utilize all four quadrants in an effort to further their own development in a very broad manner rather than just focusing on intellectual pursuits while ignoring family development or cultural growth (or vice versa).

Henshilwood, C. S. (2003). The origin of modern human behavior. Anthropology, 44(5), 627-651.

Scherger, J. E. (2005). The biopsychosocial model is shrink wrapped, on the shelf, ready to be used, but waiting for a new process of care. Systems & Health, 23(4), 444-447.

Westhearfer, C. (2004). Wilber’s ‘broad science’: A cure for Postmodernism? Australian & New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 25(2), 106-112.

Wilber, K. (2000) Integral psychology: consciousness, spirit, psychology, therapy. Shambala Publications, Inc., Boston.

Bidwell (1999) reiterated what Wilber (2000) described regarding the ‘great chain of being’ (also referred to as the great nest) as the manner in which a person graduates through their spiritual development. Bidwell (1999) further discussed the ‘human self’ which, in my opinion, is a reflection upon the three stages which are identification, disidentification, and integration with regard to undergoing the transformations of the different levels (Wilber, 2000, p. 35). Additionally, the developmental model is described by Bidwell (1999) which reflects Wilber’s model of spiritual development from personal to transpersonal experiences. Lastly, Wilber’s model of pathology is reviewed by Bidwell (1999) as mental state in which a person develops anxiety or pathologies associated with the realization that humans are all aware of their impending death and their brief existence on this plane.

The critique provided by Bidwell (1999) noted several reasons for the pastoral communities’ lack of interest in transpersonal theories such as a lack of relevance given to confessions, human discipline, and myths or symbolism associated with faith. Additionally, he noted that the terms that Wilber uses to describe existential psychotherapy are influenced by terms utilized by Buddhists and results in conflicting feelings for Christian theologians. Further, Wilber’s theories are not in alignment with the theory of eternal life nor are his theories reflective of the joyous worship of God and Jesus that is reflected, or preferred, by Christian theologists.

With a clear understanding of the concepts of transpersonal psychology (as were available in 1999) and with a balanced understanding of the resistance of the pastoral community to embrace these ideas, Bidwell is able to clearly acknowledge several reasons in which the pastoral community could benefit by remaining open to further discussions in these areas. Some examples include Wilber’s consistent understanding of God as a creative source, a divine reality, and an understanding that mankind is ever evolving in their relationship with God, spirituality, and transforming throughout his or her life through death (Bidwell, 1999).

Bidwell, D. (1999). Ken Wilber’s Transpersonal Psychology: An Introduction and Preliminary Critique. Pastoral Psychology, 48, 81-90.

Wilber, K. (2000). Integral psychology: Consciousness, spirit, psychology, therapy. Boston: Shambhala.

The ability for a person to transcend these waves increases his or her spiritual potential. This higher development process is not linear; rather, this occurs in a fluid manner throughout life with the goal of becoming more fully awake and effective in all aspects life (Wilber, 2008). However, these waves do follow a pattern of overall development in which each level, or category, (although independent of each other) must be incorporated into the second level (Wilber, 2000, p. 28). As a person undergoes these transformations the experiences can become a part of the person’s permanent self (conscious) rather than existing only in unconscious holotropic states.

Wilber (2000, p35) further connects consciousness and self with three stages he calls identification, disidentification, and integration with regard to undergoing the transformations of the different levels. The first stage is the identification phase in which the ‘self’ has just encountered a new phase of the ‘great nest’ and identifies with this phase. In the second phase the self transcends, or de-embeds, from the phase and, in the third phase the self includes the phase and integrates it with any other phases that have already gone through this process (Wilber, 2000, p. 35).

An example of this process could be moving in a wavelike fashion from psychology and mind to theology and soul (represented in the great nest as moving from A+B+C to A+B+C+D). Once A+B+C have been integrated into one’s self it could be said that a person fully understands his or her relationship with matter and physics, biology and life, with psychology and the mind. This is a very safe integration, in my opinion, as most of these categories (levels) can be scientifically defended and backed up with data. However, when a person decides to move from A+B+C to A+B+C+D they must now assess how they feel regarding the three stages of theology and soul.

Using myself as an example, in the identification phase I am able to acknowledge the existence of the soul and I am able to identify that I have a soul based upon my inability to find logical explanations for many of my feelings and experiences from physics, biology, and/or psychology. In the second phase I feel a sense of loss as I realize that everything that I have been taught in school, specifically Darwin’s theory of evolution, can no longer answer my questions regarding life and I can not find psychological explanations for my experiences either. Therefore, my dependence on A+B+C has, in a way, died (Wilber, 2000, p. 36). The last phase is in which I integrate theology and the soul with the other three phases and I now find this to be my new reality with all of the concepts fitting nicely together. In my case, I find that some things are best explained by physics, biology, psychology, and/ or theology but all things are interrelated in these three four levels.

Wilber, K. (2000). Integral psychology: Consciousness, spirit, psychology, therapy. Boston: Shambhala.

Wilber, K. (2008, January 22). What’s integral? Integral Institute. Retrieved from: www.integralinstitute.org.

Although many people who followed classic psychologists such as Freud had, for the most part, dismissed the incorporation of death into psychological research (although acknowledging it in biological research), Grof (2000, p. 220) has been able to demonstrate an alternative way to understand and investigate the experience of death and dying by researching traditional cultures. Grof (2000, p. 225) noted that traditional cultures have books of the dead, rites of passage (that may or may not include Western traditions such as applying make-up to the deceased), shamanic methods, spiritual practices, and stories surrounding mysteries of death and rebirth.

Grof (2000, p. 228) found that many traditional cultures practice and experiment with holotropic states so that when they find themselves experiencing death they are better prepared to manage the different realms and inner territories of the psyche. The ignorance, educational suppression, and misinterpretation of holotropic states by Western cultures is considered to be one of the greatest failures of Western society with regard to preparing individuals for the experience of death (Grof, 2000, p. 229). However, there are many reports from people in Western cultures who state they have had spiritual emergencies such as near death experiences. These individuals report that they see their deceased relatives, spirits, alternate universes, or supernatural beings; however, these experiences are often dismissed by the biomedical community as synapses firing irregularly or the presence of hospital lights (Grof, 2000, p. 165).

Western cultures have systematically removed the rituals that were prevalent in what was considered to be more primitive societies such as specific rites of mourning, the participation in the transfer from the land of the living to the land of the dead, or food and clothing rituals that represent the loss of the loved one but also represent the cycle of death and rebirth (O’Gorman, 1998). However, holistic psychology has brought back interest in the incorporation of death and dying concepts, education, and rituals to modern health and healing perspectives, often with the incorporation of traditional cultures into current religious and health practices (O’Gorman, 1998).

Coppola, K. M. (2002). How is death and dying addressed in introductory psychology textbooks? Death Studies, 26(8), 689-99.

Grof, S. (2000). Psychology of the future: Lessons from modern consciousness research. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

O’Gorman, S. M. (1998). Death and dying in contemporary society: An evaluation of current attitudes and the rituals associated with death and dying and their relevance to recent understandings of health and healing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 27(6), 1127-1135.

Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2004). Avoiding death or engaging life as accounts of meaning and culture: Comment on pyszczynski el al. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 473-477.

Grof (2000, p.20) notes that traditional academic psychiatry is limited in its ability to describe all the various levels and states associated with human existence and he has described a model in which three major levels, or domains, and be described and researched. The first such domain is biographical. This domain is described by Grof (2000, p.21) as being fairly well exposed in psychological studies in that it focuses on the active memories a person experiences from birth to death. From a holotropic perspective the biographical domain takes on additional characteristics such as a regressive like physical and mental change when a person is experiencing memories from childhood. Additionally, this biographical domain is that physical trauma from the past re-experiences some level of physical suffering. Grof (2000, p.22) used the example of a person reliving a drowning experience who currently experiences whooping cough. He further explains that emotionally charged memories do not occur in just one place in the subconscious; rather, they exist across multiple levels as systems of condensed experience.

The perinatal level of unconscious is described by Grof (2000) as being as life and death struggle in which a fetus is consciously aware of the conditions of life in the uterus and the challenge and fear to escape the same uterus. This theory refutes medical practices that claim the unborn child has no memories of being in utero or going through the drama of birth. This belief is not completely accepted in mainstream as evidenced by the popularity of singing and talking to the unborn child as well as rubbing it’s feet or elbows when the unborn child is kicking inside. Grof (2000, p. 37) describes the perinatal levels of unconsciousness with a Basic Perinatal Matrix (BPM). BPM I is the primal union with the mother which can either be good or based upon the health of the womb, BPM II is the cosmic engulfment and no exit or hell phase which is the phase of labor when the cervix has not opened so the fetus is being pressed upon by the womb, BPM III is the phase in which the child is being birthed, and BPM IV is the death-rebirth experience in which the child is born.

The transpersonal domain of the psyche is referred to by Grof (2000, p. 57) as being an extension beyond what is normally considered to be a personal level of psychological interaction. For example, transpersonal experiences can include intentional psychokinesis such as healing or hexing or yoga, haunting or alien abduction experiences, micro-world experiences such as being conscious of organs or cellular activities, space-time experiences such as parallel universes, past life experiences, or special boundary experiences such as communicating with animals or shared consciousness are all examples of transpersonal experience. My personal experiences with individual growth and development have been transpersonal in nature. For example, when I was younger I experienced several spiritistic phenomena. These experiences led me to believe that there is more out there besides just the traditional “heaven and hell” concepts that I had been taught as a child. I still have experiences that I describe as “gut feelings” or brief and unexpected predictive capabilities that I can not explain. Some people refer to this as “women’s intuition” but now I can refer to it as a transpersonal spontaneous psychoid event which sounds much more serious.

Grof, S. (2000). Psychology of the future: Lessons from modern consciousness research. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

An additional approach to transpersonal psychotherapy discussed by Cortright (1997) is Hameed Ali’s Diamond Approach. This theory consists of the concept of essence and essential qualities which includes using the physical body to sense essence which includes the feelings of truth, compassion and value as well as the essential qualities such as access to real love or wisdom (p. 91-92).

However, Michael Washburn’s contributions and added innovations to Carl Jung’s perspective of psychology is perhaps the most interesting from a Western psychological perspective. Washburn has discussed that the ego has a deeper relationship with the unconscious mind as well as a role in separating itself from the conscious mind by avoiding painful situations (Cortright, 1997, p. 82).

Jung and Washburn discussed that there is a separate self that experiences situations in a more authentic manner versus how the ego experiences events. This model has strengths such as clinical applicability to events such as mid-life crises and the fusion of Western approaches with transpersonal views of the subconsciousness, recognition of archetypes and collective unconsciousness, and that regression can present a great opportunity for research in the ability for a psychotherapist to assess long term psychological wounds (Cortright, 1997, p. 89).

This model could benefit from research extending from a focus on mid-life crises, exlusive Western philosophy, and further definition of exactly what the Self means with regard to the spiritual or soulful insight other theories discuss. However, Washburn’s theory of repression, retrieval, and regression therapy to manage deep pain as a healing perspective continues to be a foundation for transpersonal psychology (Lev, 2006).

Cortright, B. (1997). Psychotherapy and spirit: Theory and practice in transpersonal psychology. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Lev, Shoshana. (2006). Regression in the service of transcendence. Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge, 4(1/2), 207-210.

Non-ordinary states play a role in the current practice of psychotherapy relating all the way back to Freud’s belief that free association could assist in psychotherapy to current challenges that holotropic states are pathological in nature (Grof, 2000, p.16).  This concept can be applied in psychotherapy by assessing a person’s awareness as well as their ability to manage their experiences in both conscious and unconscious states (Cortright, 1997, p. 52).  A person may be intellectually aware of an issue that they bring to a psychotherapeutic session; however, often they are unaware of how to treat the problem on a deeper level and inducing a holotropic state has the potential of benefiting a person in this situation.  Additionally, if a therapist is aware of his or her own conscience state he or she is more likely able to contribute to transpersonal psychotherapeutic methods for clients (Cortright, 1997, p. 60).

Grof, S. (2000). Psychology of the future: Lessons from modern consciousness research. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.  

Humanism is also considered to be a treatment differing from traditional biomedical techniques in that it uses the understanding of psychological self, family systems, goal and value recognition, and intersubjective techniques as therapeutic processes (American Psychological Association Division 32 Task Force for the Development of Practice Recommendations for the Provision of Humanistic Psychosocial Services, 2004). Barret et al. (2003) described complimentary and alternative medicines (CAM) as being more holistic, intuitive, empowering, and individualistic for patients versus conventional medicine which was considered to be more deductive, scientific, general, and more controlling.  Many CAM therapists expressed a feeling that their treatments worked on healing versus repairing and that there was a focus on individual treatment strategies while acknowledging that there is not a regulatory body for these treatment strategies and the field could benefit from an increase in clinical trails that demonstrate effectiveness. 

Health psychologists believe that there are a variety of factors that contribute to why a person seeks a certain type of treatment.  Division 32 of the American Psychological Association was established to address these types of humanistic psychological factors.  Humanistic practitioners, like CAM practitioners, work to develop individual treatment plans for their clients and desire to collaborate with many systems to find the appropriate treatment or preventative strategy for each unique individual (APA, 2004). 

American Psychological Association Division 32 Task Force for the Development of Practice Recommendations for the Provision of Humanistic Psychosocial Services. (2004). Recommended principles and practices for the provision of humanistic psychosocial services: Alternative to mandated practice and treatment guidelines. Humanistic Psychologist, 32(1), 3-75. Retrieved December 3, 2007 from the World Wide Web: http://www.apa.org/divisions/div32/

Barrett, B., Marchand, L., Scheder, J., Plane, M. B., Maberry, R. Appelbaum, D., Rakel, D., & Rabago, D. (2003). Themes of holism, empowerment, access, and legitimacy define complementary, alternative, and integrative medicine in relation to conventional biomedicine. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 9(6), 937-947.

There are great deals of nutritional options for those who suffer from eating disorders. A study cited by Holford (2005) states that a zinc supplement and a placebo supplement were given to equal groups who had anorexia and those who received the zinc supplement had an increase in body weight that was twice that of those who received the placebo. Eades (2000) recommends that upon diagnosis of an eating disorder a diet should consist of regular eating patterns on a schedule that consist of complex carbohydrates and avoid potatoes, wheat, corn syrup, refined sugar, flours and the diet should be rich in fibrous vegetables and fruits. Sugars and refined carbohydrates cause the body’s metabolism to have a drastic swing between highs and lows and this may result in cravings that contribute to binge eating or eating avoidance.

The American Dietetic Association (2001) also recognizes that nutritional intervention is necessary to combat the side effects of eating disorders which include muscle weakness, fatigue, cardiac arrhythmias, dehydration and electrolyte imbalance which can be caused by purging, especially self-induced vomiting, and laxative abuse. They recommend that an interdisciplinary team should be organized to manage the recovery of the nutritional deficiencies and psychological addictions that are associated with these disorders.

Werbach (1999) has further recommendations for those suffering with eating disorders which also confirm the suggestions from Eades (2000), Holford (2005), and the American Dietetic Association (2001). Werbach’s suggestions include avoiding sugar, changing the diet to one that is rich in complex carbohydrates and proteins, avoiding alcohol, and supplementing the diet with a good vitamin that has all the B families including folic acid and niacin.

American Dietetic Association (2001). Nutrition intervention in the treatment of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and eating disorder not otherwise specified (ednos). Journal of American Dietary Association, 101, 810

Brannon, L. & Feist, J. (2004). Health psychology: An introduction to behavior and health (5th Ed.). CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Eades, M. D. (2000). The Doctor’s Complete Guide to Vitamins and Minerals. New York: Dell.

Holford, P. (2005). Optimum Nutrition for the Mind. Basic Health Publications

Werbach, Melvyn R. (1999). Nutritional Influences on Mental Illness, (2nd ed.). Tarzana, CA: Third Line Press.